Cytopathology is a branch of pathology that studies and diagnoses diseases at the cellular level. It focuses on individual cells or small clusters of cells, rather than full tissue sections (as in histopathology).
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Definition
Cytopathology is the microscopic examination of cells obtained from body fluids, secretions, or fine-needle aspirations to detect diseases such as infections, inflammation, and especially cancer.
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Common Types of Cytopathology
- Exfoliative Cytology
- Cells are naturally shed or collected from body surfaces or fluids.
- Examples:
- Pap smear (cervical cells)
- Sputum cytology (lung cancer screening)
- Urine cytology (bladder cancer detection)
- Aspiration Cytology
- Cells are obtained using a fine needle from organs or lumps.
- Example: Fine Needle Aspiration Cytology (FNAC) for:
- Thyroid nodules
- Breast lumps
- Lymph nodes
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Common Cytopathology Tests
- Pap smear (Papanicolaou test) – detects precancerous or cancerous cells in the cervix.
- FNAC – for palpable or deep-seated lesions (thyroid, lymph nodes, breast, etc.).
- Body fluid cytology – for pleural, peritoneal, or cerebrospinal fluids to check infections or malignancy.
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Procedures Steps
- Sample collection (via smear, fluid, or fine-needle).
- Fixation and staining (usually Papanicolaou stain or May-Grünwald-Giemsa stain).
- Microscopic examination by a cytopathologist.
- Diagnosis and report preparation.
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Advantage's
- Minimally invasive
- Quick and cost-effective
- Early cancer detection
- Useful for screening and follow-up
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Limitations
- Limited tissue architecture (only cells visible)
- May need confirmation with biopsy or histopathology
- Possibility of sampling errors
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Applications
- Cancer detection (especially cervical, thyroid, breast, and lung)
- Infection diagnosis (bacterial, fungal, viral)
- Inflammatory conditions
- Hormonal studies
The word “diagnoses” in this context means identifying or determining a disease or medical condition by examining evidence — here, cells under a microscope.
In the case of the Pap smear (Papanicolaou test), the test diagnoses conditions by detecting abnormal or precancerous cells in the cervix.
So, when cytopathology diagnoses disease, it means:
- It helps find out if the cells are normal, infected, or cancerous.
- It allows doctors to confirm or rule out specific diseases, like cervical cancer or HPV-related changes.
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